Urban Form, Block Scale and Built Environment Structure

The problem associated with a city's administrative boundary being “under-” or “over-bounded” has become a global phenomenon. A city's administrative boundary city does not eff ectively represent the actual size and impact of its labor force and economic activity. While many existing case studies have investigated the functional urban areas of single cities, the problem of how to delineate urban areas in geographic space relating to large bodies of cities or at the scale of an entire country has not been investigated. This study proposed a method for FUA identification that relies on ride-hailing big data. In this study, over 43 million anonymized 2016 car-hailing records were collected from Didi Chuxing, the largest car-hailing online platform in the world (to the best of our knowledge). A core-periphery approach is then proposed that uses nationwide and fine-grained trips to un- derstand functional urban areas in Mainland China. This study examined 4456 out of all 39,007 townships in an attempt to provide a new method for the de finition of urban functional areas in Chinese Mainland. In addition, four types of cities are identi fied using a comparison of functional urban areas with their administrative limits, and a further evaluation is conducted using 23 Chinese urban agglomerations. With the rapidly increasing use of internet-based ride-hailing services, such as Didi, Grab, Lyft, and Uber, globally, this study provides a practical benchmark for the delineation of functional urban areas at larger scales.

This special section of Landscape & Urban Planning (LAND) “Measuring human-scale urban form and its performance ” represents a collection of approaches to analyzing, describing and understanding the physical fabric of human-scale urban form and its corresponding so- cioeconomic and environmental performance. The rapid development of information and communication technology (ICT) is gradually be- coming integrated with the built environment, which leads to the rise of new urban science manifesting as a new infrastructure of sensing, data collection, and analysis of urbanism ( Townsend, 2015 ). Throughout the history of architecture, urban planning and land- scape architecture, most existing theories about human-scale urban form that can be directly seen by the eyes or touched by the hands have been generated using social science approaches, such as surveys, or even through subjective intuition and practical experience. Herein, the “human-scale” means a fine scale characterized by the human body and its surroundings, i.e., a scale that is directly visible, touchable, and appreciable in a person ’s daily life ( Long & Ye, 2016 ). Recently, tech- nological advances made possible the objective study of how people interact with their surrounding environment.

With the obvious regionalization trend in the new period of urbanization in China, the scientific delineation of functional regions (FRs) at different scales has become a heated topic recently. Since the 20th century, western academia has formed a basic idea of metropolitan areas’ (MAs) delineation based on population density and commuting rate, for which the subjectivity of threshold setting is difficult to overcome. In this study, community detection algorithms from the field of network science are employed, namely the Louvain algorithm with adjustable resolutions and Combo with high-precision output, respectively. We take the nationwide car-hailing data set as an example to explore a bottom-up method for delineating regional economic geography at different scales based on the interconnection strength between nodes. It was found that most of the prefecture-level cities in China have a dominant commuting region and two or three secondary commuting sub-regions, while regional central cities have extended their commuting hinterlands over jurisdictional boundaries, which is not common due to the larger initial administrative divisions and the comprehensive development niveau of cities. The feasibility and limitation of community detection partitioning algorithms in the application of regional science are verified. It is supposed to be widely used in regional delimitation supported by big data. Both of the two algorithms show a shortage of ignorance of spatial proximity. It is necessary to explore new algorithms that can adjust both accuracy and spatial distance as parameters.

】第四代工业革命背景下，新兴技术对城市生活和城市空间都产生着深远影响。因此，新时代下的城市规划也将面临转型。本文在数据增强设计方法框架下，提出智慧规划的流程及三大特征， 并从数据来源补充、城市生活与空间变化认知、 规划设计响应等视角，提出十四五时期智慧规划应关注的五大内容：(1)重视信息通讯基础设施的研究与建设，强化城市感知系统的构建；(2)认识新时代下人的需求与行为的转变，推动环境行为学的深入研究；(3)研究新兴技术对城市空间的影响，探索城市空间的未来转型方式；(4)推动数据增强设计在经典城市规划与设计中的应用，开拓更新视角的规划设计方法；(5)关注人本尺度的城市空间研究与设计，注重更以人为本的公共空间建设。 【

Abstract 关键词 Keywords 作者简介龙瀛清华大学建筑学院特别研究员，博士生导师李派清华大学建筑学院研究助理，硕士侯静轩清华大学建筑学院博士研究生街区形态 | 形态类型学 | 大模型 | 三维建筑物 | 大数据 Urban block form | Typo-morphology | Big model | Cluster analysis 面（Town plan， 包括街道、 街区和建筑基底3元素） 、 建筑形态（Building fabric）和土地使用[1]； 另一个则是源自意大利建筑学专业中的建筑类型学（Architectural typology） ， 它认为基本建筑类型（Basic building type）可以反映当地历史与传统特征， 表达城市文化和集体记忆， 并将这种方法扩展到对城市肌理类型（ Urban tissue type）的研究中， 分析建筑与周围环境的空间结构关系及其历史特性[2]。 集成上述两个学派， 文章编号 1673-8985（2019）02-0041-08

The last several decades have witnessed a rapid yet uneven urban expansion in developing countries. The existing studies rely heavily on o fficial statistical yearbooks and remote sensing images. However, the former data sources have been criticized due to its non-objectivity and low quality, while the latter is labor and cost consuming in most cases. Recent eff orts made by fractal analyses provide alternatives to scrutinize the corresponding “natural urban area ”. In our proposed framework, the dynamics of internal urban contexts is reflected in a quasi-real-time manner using emerging new data and the expansion is a fractal concept instead of an absolute one based on the conventional Euclidean method. We then evaluate the magnitude and pattern of natural cities and their expansion in size and space. It turns out that the spatial expansion rate of o fficial cities (OCs) in our study area China has been largely underestimated when compared with the results of natural cities (NCs). The perspective of NCs also provides a novel way to understanding the quality of uneven urban expansion. We detail our analysis for the 23 urban agglomerations in China, especially paying more attention to the three most dominating urban agglomerations of China: Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH), Yangtze River Delta (YRD) and Pearl River Delta (PRD). The findings from the OC method are not consistent with the NC method. The distinctions may arise from the de finition of a city, and the bottom-up NC method contributes to our comprehensive understanding of uneven urban expansion.

Urban forms re flect spatial structures of cities, which have been consciously and dramatically changing in China. Fast urbanisation may lead to similar urban forms due to similar habits and strategies of city planning. However, whether urban forms in China are iden- tical or signi ficantly different has not been empirically investigated. In this paper, urban forms are investigated based on two spatial units: city and block. The boundaries of natural cities in terms of the density of human settlements and activities are delineated with the concept of ‘redefined city ’ using points of interests (POIs), and blocks are determined by road networks. Urban forms are charac- terised by city-block two-level spatial morphologies. Further, rede- fined cities are classified into four hierarchies to examine the e ffects of di fferent city development stages on urban forms. The spatial morphology is explained by urbanisation variables to understand the effects. Results show that the urban forms are spatially clustered from the perspective of city-block two-level morphologies. Urban forms tend to be similar within the same hierarchies, but signi fi- cantly varied among different hierarchies, which is closely related to the development stages. Additionally, the spatial dimensional indi- cators of urbanisation could explain 41% of the spatial morphology of redefined cities. ARTICLE HISTORY Received 9 September 2017 Accepted 9 August 2018

This paper discusses the paradigm for data adaptive urban design of pedestrian walking system in Hengfu historic district of Shanghai. Hengfu historical district is in urgent trend for functional promotion. Firstly, focused on slow traffic system, the quantitative evaluation is conducted based on big data analysis, integrated with traditional qualitative analysis. And the planning guidelines are proposed accordingly. Secondly, a walk score system is formulated and the spatial prototype features of different kinds of streets are generalized. The existing streets are divided into basically two categories: type A which would strengthen existing historic features in the future, and type B which would dynamically adapt the features according to big data feedbacks. Thirdly, design guidelines are proposed for spatial quality enhancement. The big data infrastructure is planted and integrated with street context, with clear sets of spatial data collection methodology. And the cloud platform including big data analysis, APP development, and spatial sensors for data-adaptive regeneration of historic district is established both for dynamical spatial evaluation and information guidance for government, planners, citizens and enterprises. 关键词慢行系统；数据自适应；城市设计；历史街区；上海衡复

中国的城市空间扩张作为城市化的空间表征得到了全球学界的关注，不同的发展阶段对应着不同的新城新区开发形式，涵盖了早期的卫星城、开发区以及世纪之初的新城开发， 再到已持续 20余年的国家级新区建设。据统计，国务院目前已累积批复了 18个国家级新区，2015年至今批复了 7个国家级新区，每个国家级新区相比原有城区，开发规模巨大，这也预示着未来这些地区快速的城市空间扩张和社会经济发展。 在经历了 30 多年的高速增长和快速扩张后 ，中国经济步入了“新常态”，并确立了“新型城镇化”战略。特别是， 习近平于 2013 年 12 月 12 日在中央城镇化工作会议上的讲话中指出，“城市建成区越摊越大 ，就会摊出不可治愈的城市病，甚至将来会出现一些 ‘空城’、‘鬼城’。”，已有研究对此进行了初步探讨 [1,2]，近期的中央城市工作会议又对此进行了特别强调。此外，广为讨论的“千城一面”现象也体现在各个城市的新区。这些都在一定程度上凸显了中国新区建设在城市形态、功能发育以及城市活力等方面的不足。 目前对于新城新区空间发展方面的认识，还存在两方面的矛盾。一是大力发展国家级新区与目前呼吁存量规划之间的矛盾，如一方面业界存量规划和重视发展质量的呼声较高， 而当前打造的多个国家级新区和城市副中心建设，则往往对应着较大规模的扩张式增量发展。二是过度批判新城新区品质和活力与呼吁尊重城市发展规律之间的矛盾，新城新区空间品质与活力不足受到了较多的批评，而客观的发展规律使其培育往往需要较长时间，为此应该在更长的时间维度来看待中国新城新区的品质与活力问题。 7 2017 Vol.32, No.2国际城市规划龙瀛新城新区的发展、空间品质与活力形态 ；有了纯粹物质空间的城市形态，才能够造就相应的城市功能 ；有了城市功能，才能够在社会空间促进相应城市活动的产生；而有了城市活动，才可能体现出良好的城市活力、 品质、文化等。这几个维度依次递进，有开发没有形态，有形态没有功能，有功能没有活动，有活动没有活力，都属于目前中国大量城市的突出问题。大量中国城市在空间维度存在的问题，多可以用相互链接的两个维度进行刻画和解释 ， 笔者将利用这一框架对中国新区进行初步评价。 多源遥感数据和近期兴起的由大数据和开放数据构成的新数据环境，为从精细化尺度评价城市开发、城市形态、城市功能、城市活动和城市活力提供了前所未有的机遇 [4]。具体而言，将利用遥感数据评价城市开发 （不涉及城市内部空间结构），利用道路网数据评价城市形态 ，利用兴趣点数据评价城市功能，利用基于位置服务（LBS: location -based service ）的数据（如点评评价数量、位置微博数量等）评价城市活动，利用街景数据评价城市品质 。笔者尝试从这五个维度来看待新区的开发 、形态、功能、活动与活力，并将其与老区的情况进行对比 ，以明确新区发展所处的位置。判读相对关系而不是新区的绝对数值 ，也可以在很大程度上规避不同城市间的信息通讯技术（ICT: information & communication technology ）渗透程度不同的问题。基本技术路线如图 1 所示。 1.1 新区开发规模巨大，不同等级城市间差异不明显基于遥感解译的数据显示，中国 2000年前的老区总面积为 33 187 km²，而 2000—2010年开发的新区总面积为32 938 km²， 总规模基本与老区一致 ，显示了这十年间城市扩张之迅速 。

2015年7月11日闭幕的中共北京市委十一届七次全会表决通过了《中共北京市委北京市人民政府关于贯彻<京津冀协同发展规划纲要> 的意见》 ， 明确指出， 要聚焦通州， 加快北京市行政副中心的规划建设 [1]。同年11月30日据新华网报道， 北京行政副中心建设将带动40万人疏解至通州， 将对疏解功能起到示范带动作用。 行政功能带动人口疏解包含两个方面： 一是通过行政办公功能疏解带动其他相关功能向行政副中心疏解； 二是带动非首都功能向亦庄、 顺义、 大兴、 昌平等其他新城转移， 最终共同实现降低通州定位为北京市行政副中心①。 北京将通州打造成能独立、 宜居宜业的新城， 以期降低中心城区人口密度， 改变北京单中心蔓延的发展模式， 优化空间布局， 北京行政副中心能否按照预期生长， 还需客观分析与科学验证。 基于数据增强设计（DAD）的方法， 将城市视为生命体， 探求“城市生长基因” ， 对北京未来城市形态和城市活力展开定量分析与预测。 首先， 以成都市行政中心搬迁为研究案例， 分析行政中心迁移之后， 成都市南部新区土地城镇化进程、 城市活力变化， 为北京行政副中心提供借鉴。 基于北京城市发展模型（BUDEM） ， 模拟2020年不同发展模式和增长速度的9种情景下的北京城市形态。 研究表明： （1）随着城市行政中心的迁移， 土地城镇化明显， 而充满活力、 宜居宜业的新城建设是一个更为漫长的过程； （2）若北京行政副中心持续快速发展， 可能突破第一、 二绿化隔离带， 与北京中心城区连片； （3）若北京行政副中心的影响与现有新城相同， 北京依然呈单中心向外蔓延的发展趋势， 城市形态与顺势发展并无太多差异。 Tongzhou has been regarded as the sub-center of Beijing for alleviating the population pressure and optimizing the spatial structure of the central city. Whether the planned Tongzhou sub-center can achieve this target deserves more scientific evaluation. This paper will borrow the development experience of Chengdu, which also proposed the sub-center strategy several years ago, for assessing the future of Beijing, using Data Augmented Design approaches. Both urban growth analysis, simulation and urban function, vibrancy evaluation of Chengdu and Beijing have been conducted. Our findings suggest that: (1) it may take a long time for developing a vibrant new city;

The human-centered perspective has been frequently mentioned in many national policies on urbanization in China, like National Guidelines for Developing a New Type of Urbanization and Central Urban Work Conference. Accompanying with the raising call for human-centered considerations in urban planning and design, a series of new data environment and new analytical methods bring new potentials for achieving this goal. For instance, the new data environment consisting of big data and open data could provide foundation for in-depth study of urban form and its related performances. New techniques and methods, e.g. Lidar imaging, virtual reality, eye-tracking, deep learning, big data mining and visualization, provide emerging insightful analytical approaches. Therefore, the paper proposes the conceptual framework of human-scale urban form that can be defined as visible, touchable, and perceptible urban forms in people’s daily lives. It is a meaningful supplement for classical urban morphology focusing on street blocks and parcels. Following this route, the paper firstly reviews existing studies related to the concept of human-scale urban form. Three essential issues of human-scale urban form, i.e., measurements, performances, and urban planning and design interventions, are then discussed to guide future researches. After that, several initial studies made by the authors of this paper are illustrated as empirical examples. This paper is an initial attempt to create the concept framework of human- scale urban form and explore its potentials in urban planning and design practices. It could promote the transition towards more scientific planning and design paradigm, and finally contribute to better urban lives.

There are everlasting compromises between extent and granularity for temporal, spatial and human-being dimensions of large- scale urban design. That is, it is not easy to understand an object with a large extent and fine-grained granularity, thus limiting the urban design practices. The emerging new data environment composed by big data and open data has provided a new opportunity for gaining knowledge on physical and social spaces of cities and breaking the compromise between extent and granularity. In this paper, we have established the time-space-people (TSP) model for large-scale urban design while referring to the framework of Data Augmented Design (DAD). We discuss the data informed large-scale urban design using DAD from three channels: time, space and people. The perspective on this direction has been highlighted at the end of this paper.

Environment and Planning A 2015, volume 47, pages 1 – 2 doi:10.1068/a140066g Featured graphic. Mushrooming Jiedaos, growing cities: an alternative perspective on urbanizing China With more than 15 million new urban residents entering its cities every year, China is witnessing one of the greatest socioeconomic and environmental transformations in human history. In addition to these ongoing changes, urbanization in China often involves a significant political dimension, as the government would purposely accord city status to settlements, regardless of their developmental level: Largely rural settlements (eg, Zhen) could be accorded with the city status (eg, Jiedao) overnight by administrative power. Such redesignation is nontrivial as city status often translates into real socioeconomic changes; city status is closely linked to the land-use quota, provision of public services, local governments’ legislature power, as well as residents’ hukou. While socioeconomic and environmental aspects of Chinese cities have been analyzed extensively with aggregated statistics and/or remote sensing data (Deng et al, 2012), little is known about the shifting political geography of Chinese cities: that is, where new city status is being granted. It is this lacuna that our project aims to fill. We focus on the basic building block of a city proper in China: Jiedao (subdistricts).

This output forms part of the Beijing City Lab research direction on Urban Form, Block Scale and Built Environment Structure. Download the publication below.

2015/6/12 城市规划学刊 http://upforum.org/knowledge.php?id=598&fid=3 1/3 首页新闻中心本期导读下期预告学术动态学科论坛论文评选在线投稿互动交流关于我们学术动态互动交流城市与区域发展城市开发与土地经济城市设计与详细规划城市道路交通与基础设施城市发展历史与遗产保护城市社会、住房与社区发展城市规划管理与政策城市规划技术与方法城市生态与人居环境景观园林与旅游规划过刊检索期数从: 1978 年 1 期至: 2015 年 6 期文章标题: 作者姓名: 关键词: 摘要: 本期您最喜欢的文章 《城市规划学刊》网站用户调查您当前的位置: 首页学术动态 04城乡交通与市政基础设施 （卓健） 发布时间: 20150331 点击: 2321 利用北京公共交通刷卡数据（SCD）研究城市贫困问题优先发展包括地面公共交通和城市轨道交通在内的城市公共交通，成为当前解决城市各种交通问题的主要出路。中国城市的公交优先发展战略已上升到国家战略层面，很多城市在各层面规划或政策中，都提出了提高公共交通出行比例的目标。日渐普及的公共交通自动计费（automatic fare collection，AFC）系统产生了丰富的公共交通智能卡持卡人的乘降信息，即公共交通刷卡数据（smart card data，SCD）。它详细记录了持卡人的上下车的时间、起止站点和出行线路。 SCD作为一种大规模数据，获取成本较低，连续性好、覆盖面广、信息全面且易于动态更新，具有地理标识 （Geotagged）和时间标签，可以作为大数据的一种支持城市研究工作。近两年，龙瀛带领的北京城市实验室团队利用北京的大规模SCD数据对城市贫困这一经典问题进行了研究。 以往的城市贫困相关研究多基于小规模调查数据，对应一个时间点，难以观测到大规模人群的多年变化。此外，中国国民对经济收入比较敏感，导致调查中有多报（如为了获得签证或相互之间攀比以及虚荣心作用等）或者少报 （申请社会公共品如保障房）的情况。研究者通过多个渠道的数据验证得出，北京持卡人每周的出行总次数和累计时间，与其收入呈负相关关系，即频繁的公交出行者偏向为城市贫困群体。利用SCD研究的另外一个好处是，可以追踪一个持卡人长时间周期内的出行行为，这是以往问卷调查难以做到的。研究团队通过设置一定的规则，利用 2008年和2010年的北京市上千万持卡人的刷卡记录，发现了11.2万在研究时间段内频繁地在北京使用公共交通的持卡人，并将他们识别为潜在城市贫困群体。人的每一次出行都有目的，要在城市中汲取营养——这些潜在城市贫困群体更是如此。他们不辞劳苦地在城市中奔波，借助公共交通系统谋求更好的生活。这些人是谁？在干什么？工作在哪里？居住在哪里？家庭状况如何？深入了解这些问题，有助于城市管理者科学制定公交线路优化、公交补贴、产业布局、时间规划等政策。研究团队基于已经发表在《地理学报》的利用SCD识别居住地、就业地和通勤出行的文章，发现80%的持卡人更换了住址（多为搬离市中心），只有13%的人未更换工作。这样一来，SCD数据除了可以定位大规模的城市贫困群体，还可以了解他们的出行、通勤，以及居住地、就业地方面的多年变化，这是以往研究无法做到的。该研究成果可以用于支持城市公共品的申请，如申请保障性住房的时候，对申请人的公交卡进行评估，识别出极端贫困的申请人，在其命中概率或者租金价格等方面，予以照顾和补贴；也可以用于公交系统补贴，将目前粗放的群体性补贴转为基于精细识别的个体补贴。

]地块组成街区是城市形态的重要特征之一， 地块的变化可以作为城市形态时空分析的手段。 基于北京市中心城控制性详细规划的地块方向实证研究得到如下结论 ：北京城区的路网可划分为规则、斜方向、 混合和自然四类， 这些类型和地块方向密切相关 ；地块方向与地块的周长、 面积和紧凑度等其他指标相关性较小， 具有独立性 ；地块方向存在空间分异， 局部地块方向分布规律与整体也不同；地块方向可用于评价规划方案对原有城市形态的继承程度， 识别规划方案中扭转了原有城市形态方向的地块的分布。 [

地块组成街区是城市形态的重要特征之一，地块的变化可以作为城市形态时空分析的手段。本文提出了用于城市形态分析的地块方向这一指标，对其概念进行了定义，给出基于 GIS 计算地块方向的方法， 并基于北京市中心城控制性详细规划的地块进行了实证研究，得到如下结论：（1）北京城区的路网可划分为规则、斜方向、混合和自然四类，这些类型和地块方向密切相关；（2）地块方向与地块的周长、面积和紧凑度等其他指标相关性较小，具有独立性；（3）地块方向存在空间分异，局部地块方向分布规律与整体也不同；（4）地块方向可用于评价规划方案对原有城市形态的继承程度，识别规划方案中扭转了原有城市形态方向的地块的分布。